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Napoleon's Buttons Chapter 12: Molecules of Witchcraft

From the 1300s to the 1500s, people were accused of being witches due to a certain group of molecules. Many of the people accused were elderly women, but they were not the only ones. Something many of the accused people had in common was that they dealt with herbs to cure people. Christians did not approve of this witchcraft because it was associated with paganism. What the accusers did not realize is that these “witches” were actually early forms of chemists.
Salicylic acid was one molecule found in the willow tree and meadowsweet plant in Europe. It was often used to alleviate pain, much like aspirin. 

Salicylic Acid Structure

Another molecule was Digitalis. This was distracted from the foxglove plant, which was also common in Europe. It has several effects on the heart, including reduced heart rate, regularized heart rhythm, and a strengthened heartbeat.

Digitalis Structure

Other important molecules in this chapter include cocaine and atropine. When cocaine was first used, it was used to fight fatigue, hunger, and thirst. In order to allow the alkaloids in cocaine to release slowly, it was mixed with a lime paste and tucked between the teeth and cheeks inside the mouth. Cocaine was used by Sigmund Freud to treat morphine addiction. However, it soon became evident that cocaine was addictive as well. Although cocaine is extremely addictive, its structure is used in local anesthetics. These include Benzocaine, novocaine, lidocaine. These compounds are able to combat pain like cocaine can, but it lacks the ability to tap into the nervous system and affect the heart rate. This is just another example of how witchcraft drugs have affected our current medical treatments.

Cocaine Structure

I chose this chapter because it was presented in an interesting manner. I grew up watching Monty Python and the Holy Grail, so the clip from that movie made me enjoy the presentation more than the others. I am not normally wrapped up in witchcraft, but I realize that it is has been an important part of pharmaceuticals that we have today. I have provided the video for those who would like to share in my excitement about it.

Oh That’s My Zone

Rather than focusing on a threat to climate change, I thought it would be nice to focus on something positive- the effects of reducing behaviors that are harmful to the atmosphere. Australian researchers have detected a recovery in ozone levels in the Antarctic Region. This detection is occurring 22 years after the Montreal Protocal ban on CFCs came into effect. Although this is exciting news, these researchers continuously have years in which the levels of the ozone fluctuate. This is confusing, making it difficult to track any progress. However, a recent study done by Murry Salby shows that this fluctuation is nothing to be concerned about. Salby and his team have credited this fluctuation to a certain pattern of weather known as dynamical forcing.

In the years when dynamical forcing is strong during the winter, more ice crystals form in the atmosphere. They then “form the surface on which chlorine destroys ozone, catalyzed by sunlight returning to the Antarctic during the spring” (Crow). With this discovery, it is easier to understand what is occurring in the atmosphere and why the ozone is not gradually healing. It is predicted that in 2085, the ozone levels will still fluctuate down to 1980 levels. This shows that the progress is slow and unstable. However, this study also shows that watching what we put into the atmosphere can save our ozone layer.

A good note to end on would be one of motivation for humans to be cautious of these things. Salby highlights that “the increase in ozone levels revealed by the calculations closely mirror the decrease in the levels of anthropogenic chlorine in the region” (Crow).

If you're anything like me, a definition wouldn't hurt
Courtesy of Google

Source:

Article by James Mitchell Crow http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=first-signs-of-ozone-hole-recovery-spotted

Christmas Already??

With Halloween decorations being dead and gone for nearly a week, it seems premature to be talking about Christmas. However, local radio stations are playing holiday music, stores have set up their trees, and an Elf has just been mentioned on a national television game show. Luckily, the Elf that the game show contestant was describing to the host has nothing to do with the upcoming holiday season. It is a type of vehicle that some might describe as a “bike-car”.

http://www.organictransit.com/

Crafted by a team of designers led by Rob Cotter, the Elf operates on a combination of human power (pedaling) and electrical or solar power. This development of two combined energy sources could prove to be beneficial to the environment AND human health. The Elf has normal bicycle pedals that can be operated by the driver. It can also be charged up either through an outlet or through the solar panels on its roof. (A full solar charge takes about seven hours and provides 30 miles of power). This solar energy source is based on the background theory of photoelectric application; photovoltaic cells are used to convert solar energy into electricity.

The inventors at Organic Transit have found that solar energy is powerful enough to operate a vehicle, and the Elf only maxes out at 20 mph in order to meet federal bicycle requirements. They have also found that this solar power can be combined with human power to create an efficient mode of transportation. A major conclusion made by these researchers is that the Elf will reduce carbon footprints in developed countries. In third world countries, they conclude that “the Elf could help shave hours off tasks like collecting water” (Stone).

I have learned that technology can be much more efficient when different types of energy are combined. With the development of the energy-efficient Elf, people will not have to pay for gas. They will also be able to get exercise while traveling, rather than simply sitting in a car. This invention is extremely promising and reasonable. Although the current top speed is 20 mph, future development could maximize this speed, qualifying the Elf as a “car”. It appeals to buyers because of the low cost (roughly $5,000). It also encourages physical activity that is built directly into the daily schedule. Amidst the numerous benefits, perhaps the most notable outcome of this energy development is the reliance on solar energy and human power rather than earth-harming fossil fuels.

The Elf is currently being sold, and it has already been distributed to its major supporters from Kickstarter. I guess it was an early Christmas for them!

Sources:

http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=is-this-solar-powered-half-electric-2013-01

http://library.thinkquest.org/20331/types/solar/theory.html

http://www.organictransit.com/order/

Scientific Discovery: Glowing Antibiotics

Marleen van Oosten and her colleagues created a glowing antibiotic that exposes bacteria. They did this by injecting fluorescent dye into a bacterial antibiotic called vancomycin. This glowing antibiotic works by getting into the cell walls of bacteria and causing the cell walls to glow under a fluorescent microscope. It does not currently work on humans because the molecules of the antibiotic may not be bright enough to be seen in a human body. However, it has been effective in detecting bacteria in rats.

This discovery is based on the basic principles of fluorescence. Molecules become fluorescent when specific dye compounds are combined to create a glowing reaction in the specific item. Van Oosten and her team were able to discover the specific fluorescent dyes needed to create this reaction in bacteria molecules.

In conclusion, this discovery will only help to identify a certain amount of infections, not all of them. It also requires further development in order to be effective in humans. However, the creation of this fluorescent antibiotic will lead to a faster diagnosis of infections, rather than performing a biopsy (which is the current option for distinguishing ordinary post-surgical swelling from an infection).

This discovery is significant because it introduces a new way to detect infections. As Niren Murthy suggests, with biopsies currently being the most common and feasible option, “a new way to detect infections is badly needed” (Reardon). The fact that this fluorescent antibiotic only makes certain bacteria glow is not necessarily a bad thing; it can help physicians narrow down the cause of an infection. This helps them to settle on the correct treatment option.

This discovery could have a major impact on the medical world. Since vancomycin and the dye are known to be safe options for humans, “Van Oosten hopes that the technique can soon be used on people.” Hopefully, this will allow physicians to identify and cure infections in humans much quicker than current science allows.

Sources:

http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=glowing-antibiotics-reveal-bacterial-infections

http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/PenetrantTest/PTMaterials/whythingsfluoresce.htm

The Scientific Method- Do Scientists REALLY Use It?

I began learning about the scientific method in elementary school. Although a few steps are often added or dismissed, the scientific method follows a general pattern:

1. Observe a phenomenon and develop a question

2. Research the topic

3. Create a hypothesis

4. Design and perform an experiment

5. Collect data and draw conclusions

6. Share the results

I remember thinking the scientific method was not important. At first, I doubted that scientists even used it. After discovering that science was not my strongest subject, I doubted that ANYBODY would use it. However, I have been proven wrong.

I asked two of the best scientists I know if they follow the scientific method when they conduct experiments. Dr. Finney was a physics teacher at my high school. Dr. Keim is my current psychology teacher (psychology is indeed a hard science!).

Dr. Keim expressed that most psychologists use the scientific method. Within her answer, she explained two main ways in which psychologists work with it. One is inductive reasoning, in which one starts with data and ends with theory (this is used to form a hypothesis or theory). The other is deductive reasoning, in which one starts with theory and collects data (this is used to test hypothesis and reasoning). However, Dr. Keim stated that the most difficult part for her has been getting her discoveries published in the scientific world, as it must be reviewed and revised many times. She is currently in the process of doing this, and it has been going on for years.

This image displays a more web-like
view of the scientific method

Dr. Finney has an elaborate view on the scientific method. She says that the scientific method should not be viewed as linear (as it is usually taught in general science classes); it should be seen as a circular or web-like procedure. She often develops a question, but realizes through research that she must change the question before moving on. Through experimentation, Dr. Finney might see something and form another question. In this case, the experimental stage acts as the observational stage for another experiment. She also might find that she is unable to draw a conclusion from the experiment she designed or the experiment is not as repeatable as she expected it to be. Once a conclusion is drawn, she may decide to narrow her focus before reporting her results. The scientific method cannot possibly be used as a simple step-by-step procedure because science is such an intricate subject.

Dr. Finney also highlighted her tendency to apply the scientific method to everyday life because it provides a logical and systematic approach to all issues.

Through discussing the scientific method and its use with REAL scientists, I have found that it is a necessary part to any experiment. Psychologists (like Dr. Keim) follow the scientific method to observe humans. Other scientists (like Dr. Finney) apply the method to all of their experiments. As Dr. Finney said, it can also be used for problem-solving in our daily lives.

Great… There’s another reason to pay attention in science class.

All information was provided by Dr. Finney and Dr. Keim, respectively.

Analysis of “Welcome to the Age of Denial”

Adam Frank has an interesting approach to science in today’s world, which he expresses in his article "Welcome to the Age of Denial". He states that people do not celebrate scientific discoveries anymore; they just criticize these discoveries. He supports this with a statistic that shows the creationist population in America has risen, which is shocking because I often feel I do not know many people that believe in God and his creation. However, I have taken into consideration the fact that I have recently entered college, and this is a time in which my beliefs will be tested. Many people are exposed to several different beliefs as they enter college, causing them to feel lost and alone in their original faith. I immediately began to analyze the statistic; I checked the date on the article to see how recent it was, and I also considered the size of the population observed for this statistic. I’m sure hearing this would make Frank’s ears bleed.

            He says he is sending his students into a world that is skeptical about science, and he has a negative attitude about this. I agree with the fact that our society does not simply accept scientific studies now, but I do not think this is a bad thing. Galileo was ostracized for challenging the teaching that the earth was the center of the world, but he was ultimately correct. We need people like Galileo in this world to question our teachings and studies. This will either break down a belief or make it stronger. Either way, we will continue to move forward.

            Although Frank seems to consider the skeptical part of society as a point of concern, I disagree. Criticism is healthy; it forces people to dig deeper and search for more answers. In fact, we are discovering more through the small, scientific battles that are absorbed by the media. The people in the general public read the articles that show up on their homepages because they are interested in the latest “scientific discovery”. These discoveries go back and forth; somebody questions a theory, and somebody else fires back defensively. The only thing we should do about this shift in society is allow it to happen. We could even contribute to the skepticism, thus becoming better critical thinkers ourselves.